Literature Review

The Link between Music and Drugs

Since we coined expressions like “Sex, Drugs, and Rock ‘n’ Roll” and “Party like a Rockstar,” drug use has been associated with music and live performances. My secondary research proves the existence of a relationship between music and drugs. Through this literature review, I hope to provide knowledge on this relationship. This way, my study will be easily interpreted by my audience as well.

Drugs Covered in Study

A great place to start is with a brief explanation of the drugs that will be studied. The drugs that are relevant for this research are ones commonly taken at live music events. These are referred to as “party drugs” or “rave drugs” and include ecstasy, magic mushrooms, cocaine, LSD, marijuana, and amphetamines. The information in the following paragraph is provided by REACHOUT.com which aims to educate parents and help those with addiction (“Party Drugs”, 2016). A brief explanation of each drug will help make connections between later findings.

MDMA, or ecstasy, is a stimulant drug that causes a buildup of dopamine in the brain. This leads to changes in emotion, friendly interaction with strangers, and hallucinations. The recent trend has shifted towards a purer form of ecstasy called Molly. The buildup of dopamine still occurs, but doesn’t lead to hallucinations in this form. Hallucinogenic drugs, however, do have popularity at live music events. Owsley Stanley, a student and member of the hippie movement, discovered the effects of lysergic acid diethylamide, or LSD, and promised “conscience expansion” (Sampson, 2008). Since then, this drug has exploded on the music scene with its powerful effects on the prefrontal cortex and visualizations of colors and patterns. Another “party drug” that causes hallucinations is magic mushrooms. Often shortened to “shrooms,” this drug often interferes with peoples’ perception of reality by disrupting how your nerve cells and neurotransmitter interact. This causes similar effects on the prefrontal cortex as LSD; however, “shrooms” tend to last half the time compared to LSD making it popular as it fits the length of many live music events. On the opposite side of hallucinogens, you’ll find the energy-providing drugs of cocaine and amphetamines. Cocaine is commonly used to boost confidence, but is highly addictive due to its effects on the limbic system. Amphetamines, originally used by women for weight loss, speed up messages to brain causing people to be talkative, agitated, and less hungry. Some amphetamines include methamphetamine, speed, ice, whiz, and crystal meth. The last drug studied is cannabis and is commonly known today as weed, pot, dope, and marijuana. When smoked, the herb makes a person feel relaxed, happy, and hungry. In the music industry, it’s commonly used to ease anxiety and cure “stage fright” (Miller & Quigley, 2012, pg. 390). Cannabis is very common today as it is legal in certain states and is often combined with other drugs due to its calming effects.

I chose to exclude alcohol from this study because my secondary research proves that it acts inversely to all other drugs making it an outlier. It’s assumed that alcohol acts inversely to drugs because it’s a bad mix with certain drugs, incites violent behavior, tastes worse with ecstasy or amphetamines, and uppers like cocaine disguise intoxication causing a worse hangover the following morning (Havere et al, 2011, pg. 24).

Music Releases Dopamine Similar to Drug Use

The scientific way of proving the existence of a relationship between drug use and music is found in the release of a certain chemical in your brain: Dopamine. “Dopamine is a chemical that is commonly released in the brain as a reward for something you do, making you feel good so that you do that thing again. It’s an evolutionary process that makes you keep doing necessary things like eating to stay alive and having sex to keep the human race alive” (Fraieli, 2014). These are tangible rewards that involve the striatal dopaminergic system in your brain (Salimpoor et al, 2011, pg. 257). Other rewards that release dopamine include money, psychoactive drugs, drinking water when dehydrated, and winning. They all arouse feelings of euphoria that lead a person to associate the action with pleasure.

Studies are now showing that peak emotion to music also acts as a stimulus that leads to releases of dopamine. In a study at McGill University, participants that report experiencing chills when listening to music were recruited to determine if music can also act as a stimulus. Their hypothesis was that chills identify when someone is experiencing peak emotion to music. They figured they could scan the brain during these moments to determine if the music causes the release of dopamine or if the chills do. Ligand-based positron emission tomography (PET) scanning was used to estimate dopamine release between dopamine receptors in the striatum (pg. 257). Along with the PET scans, psychophysiological measurements were collected like heart rate, respiration rate, blood volume pulse amplitude, and peripheral temperature. Participants in the study were instructed to select the music that is highly pleasurable to themselves to get the most accurate results from the scan. The reason for this is proved in John Marshall’s article when he explains that dopamine release is dependent on if someone is enjoying the music or not. Those who reported disliking the music they listened to were found to have lower levels of dopamine than those who reported liking it (Marshall, 2016). Another factor taken in to consideration is that music is connected to memory (Fraieli, 2014). Hearing a song for the first time will affect the brain differently than a song someone heard when they fell in love.

The experiment was conducted and they found that chills were correlated with increases in heart rate, respirations, and electrodermal response. This finding confirmed that the chills response acts as a good representation of peak emotional arousal (Salimpoor, et al, 2011, 258). The PET scans later revealed that dopamine release was found in moments before and during chills (pg. 259). This proves that the chills do not cause the release of dopamine, but more that the chills are an indicator of dopamine release. These results prove a lot for the relationship between music and drugs. The discussion section of this experiment notes, “If music-induced emotional states can lead to dopamine releases, as our findings indicate, it may begin to explain why musical experiences are so valued. These results further speak to why music can be effectively used in rituals, marketing, or film to manipulate hedonic states” (pg. 262)

Since both music and drugs release dopamine in the brain, it makes sense why the two would be combined. In his article, Andrew Fraieli (2014) explains how drugs like ecstasy don’t allow dopamine to be released and cause a buildup in the brain. This is what leads to feelings of euphoria and leads to depression once the drug wears off causing a come down. Clearly, this research proves that a relationship exists between music and drugs and it’s proven by the release of dopamine that occurs after taking drugs as well as listening to music.

Music is Designed towards Enjoyment on Drugs

Drug use has become increasingly popular at live music events such as music festivals, concerts, raves, and clubs. Can this be explained by the fact that music and live performances are designed towards enjoyment while on drugs? It might not be possible to prove, but my research proves that certain genres play it to their advantage.

The history of music supports the idea that drugs have played a role in certain aspects. It started with Hector Berlioz in 1830 when he wrote “Symphonie Fantastique” detailing the effects of an opium experience (Lombardi, 2013). This was the first of its kind, but wasn’t repeated until a century after when pioneers of jazz music like Charlie Parker eased pressure with a heroin needle while making this new sound (Sampson, 2008). In Jamaica, reggae music slowed the beat back down as though crafted for the cannabis that inspired its form and theology with references to marijuana according to Kevin Sampson’s article. Sampson also speaks of punk bands like the Ramones and Sex Pistols and how they introduced two-minute garage thrash-bangs. These were much shorter than past songs and were influenced by the increased use of amphetamine sulphate (speed) and amyl nitrate (rush) that provided energy to enjoy the adrenalized music. In 1967, Paul McCartney accidently revealed to the world that he had used LSD; however, this was no surprise to anyone who had listened to his latest album “Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club.” It included psychedelic sounds like the use of sitar and studio effects like backwards tapes, panning, and reverbs (Lombardi, 2013). In the article titled “History of Music and Drugs,” it details the influence crack had on the streets where hip hop was being born. Hip allowed the struggling classes to voice their violent way of life and withdrawals from crack gave them all the rage and energy they needed to perform.

All of this history between drugs and music has inevitably lead to today’s drug influenced music that we know. Rappers admit to using illegal substances every other line and there are even songs that are named after drugs like A$AP Rocky’s “L$D.” A growing trend in Belgium and other parts of Europe is the combination of dance and trance music referred to as “dance-trance” commonly played at goa parties. The goal of these parties is to “assist dancers to experience a collective state of bodily transcendence” (Havere, et al, 2011, pg.19). This is accomplished through ancient shamanic dancing rituals, pulsing/hypnotic melodies and rhythms, colorful light show, and excessive drug use. This is a great example of music designed towards enjoyment on drugs because eight out of ten attendees had used illegal drugs in the past year making people who attend goa parties five times more likely to be illegal drug users (pg. 24). Outside of the goa party scene, the hypnotic melodies and rhythms of “dance-trance” are also seen in the genres of EDM and rave music. These genres manipulate emotional arousal of their music by creating expectations, delays, tension, surprise, and anticipation (Salimpoor, et al, 2011, pg. 261). A great example of this in electronic music is the anticipated “base drop” that acts as the climax of a song. “Party drugs” are most powerful in the prefrontal cortex where decision making is accomplished. This explains why performers delay predicted outcomes and violate expectations in songs because the audience’s prefrontal cortex is vulnerable and easily surprised (pg. 261). This genre is easily enjoyed while using drugs and this is proven by the fact that rave music isn’t heard on broadcast media nor is the latest trend in popular music (Forsyth, et al, 1997, pg. 1324). Further supporting this idea, a study in the United Kingdom found that 64.3% of young adolescents who had ever used an illegal drug had a favorite music genre in the rave category (pg. 1320). Even Rod Stanley, editor of Dazed & Confused magazine, has said, “No one has really invented or discovered a new drug for a while. Every time one has been found over the decades, young people swiftly work out the best music experience to go with it. If a new drug were discovered today, a new music scene would spring up overnight” (Sampson, 2008). Through the many historic and current examples, this research all supports the idea that music is designed towards enjoyment on drugs.

Drug Use Mirrors Genre of Music

Other research I’ve found supports a different idea that audiences actually use drugs to match the mood of a genre or performance. This idea is explained by John Marshall (2016) in his article when he uses the comparison, “When you’re feeling gloomy, sunny stuff tends to bum you out even more.” He supports this statement with the statistic that suicide rates are highest in the spring and early summer because a bright world makes your feel isolated and alienated when your consciousness is dark. After a breakup, people feel better listening to breakup songs because it provides them with a sense of support. “People do drugs for different reasons just like people listen to music for different reasons. Someone may do cocaine to give them energy and get them excited just like someone may listen to a pop song to get them pumped. Someone may smoke weed to relax just like someone may put on jazz to relax” (Fraieli, 2014). The rise of disco music also supports this argument. In the early 70’s, disco music was unpopular until the rise of cocaine that gave people the energy to dance all night and be promiscuous (Lombardi, 2013). Disco music was all the rage by end of the decade. Lombardi’s article, “History of Music on Drugs,” also explains that the common use of psychedelics at Woodstock in 1969 was caused by the “Flower Power” that brought bold ideas of love and peace during an intensifying Vietnam War.

Today, audiences use drugs to match the mood of performances at music festivals across the world. In a study at the Big Day Out music festival in Australia, surveys proved that drug use was higher there than the nation’s average for four consecutive years (Lim, et al, 2009, pg. 155). This was very interesting because the genre of music changed every year at this festival, yet drug use didn’t. A study on drug use and nightlife reveals that the use of legal and illegal substances is linked with nightlife recreational venues (Havere, et al, 2011, pg. 24). The study on the Big Day Out music festival also recorded percentages of people who had recently taken a certain drug and compared it to their musical preference. They found that the highest percentage of ecstasy and LSD use was correlated with a musical preference in dance or house music. Live music events with dance/house music commonly have effects like light shows that are more enjoyable under the influence of these two drugs (Lim, et al, 2008, pg. 441). For these reasons, some believe that audiences use drugs to match the mood of a genre or performance.

Conclusion

All of this research puts forward a question similar to “what came first: the chicken or the egg?” Were certain genres created after discovering a new drug or have drugs allowed us to appreciate certain genres more than others? The relationship is complicated, but through my primary research I hope to determine if the drugs young people take influence their musical preferences or if the music young people listen to influence their drug preferences? The relationship between the two is complicated; however, you cannot deny that it exists. In the words of comedian Bill Hicks, “Drugs have done good things for us. If you don’t believe they have, do me a favor – take all your albums, tapes, and CDs and burn them, cause you know what? The musicians that have made that great music that has enhanced your lives throughout the years…were real fucking high on drugs” (Lombardi, 2013).

References

Forsyth, Alasdair J. M., et al. “Musical preference as an indicator of adolescent drug use.” Addiction, vol. 92, no. 10, 1 Oct. 1997, pp. 1317–1325., doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1997.tb02850.x.

Fraieli, Andrew. “How music can affect the brain like a drug.” University Press, 14 Feb. 2014, www.upressonline.com/2014/02/how-music-can-affect-the-brain-like-a-drug/. Accessed 1 May 2017.

Havere, Tina Van, et al. “Drug use and nightlife: more than just dance music.” Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy, vol. 6, no. 1, 1 Jan. 2011, pp. 18–28., doi:10.1186/1747-597x-6-18.

Lim, Megan, et al. “A Cross-Sectional survey of young people attending a music festival: associations between drug use and musical preference.” Drug and Alcohol Review, vol. 27, no. 4, 1 July 2008, pp. 439–441., doi:10.1080/09595230802089719.

Lim, Megan S. C., et al. “Surveillance of drug use among young people attending a music festival in Australia, 2005-2008.” Drug and Alcohol Review, vol. 29, no. 2, Aug. 2009, pp. 150–156., doi:10.1111/j.1465-3362.2009.00090.x.

Lombardi, Michael. “History of Music on Drugs.” Rock World Magazine, 17 Feb. 2013, www.rockworldmagazine.com/history-of-music-on-drugs/. Accessed 1 May 2017.

Marshall, John. “Why Music is Like Drugs & How to Use it to Impact Your Emotions.” Everup, 19 Apr. 2016, www.everup.com/2016/04/19/music-benefits-influence-on-emotions-and-mood/. Accessed 1 May 2017.

Miller, Kathleen E., and Brian M. Quigley. “Sensation-Seeking, performance genres and substance use among musicians.” Psychology of Music, vol. 40, no. 4, 2011, pp. 389–410., doi:10.1177/0305735610387776.

“Party Drugs.” Reach Out, au.reachout.com/tough-times/alcohol-and-other-drugs/party-drugs. Accessed 1 May 2017.

Salimpoor, Valorie N, et al. “Anatomically distinct dopamine release during anticipation and experience of peak emotion to music.” Nature Neuroscience, vol. 14, no. 2, 1 Feb. 2011, pp. 257–262., doi:10.1038/nn.2726.

Sampson, Kevin. “Drugs uncovered: The link between drugs and music.” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 15 Nov. 2008, www.theguardian.com/society/2008/nov/16/drugs-music-link. Accessed 1 May 2017.

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